Cryptids are Real

I have two sons. They often watch the Cartoon Network. Recently, the network has been running some commercials promoting a site titled Cryptids are Real.

A description of the site reads:

Discover the hidden world of cryptids. Watch legendary animals caught on video, read eyewitness monster encounters, and track creatures like the Loch Ness Monster.

The site looks nice. It has the commercials online, some headlines, graphics with brief text, and a map for tracking cryptid sittings. The site is not deep and there is not really a lot of content yet. I think this site was developed to promote a new cartoon show on the network.

It does not take long to see that this is a hoax site. None of the stories are real. Headlines like "Bigfoot's Stinky Cousin" give it away. However, as this site is aimed at children, will this not be taken seriously by some of them? For this reason, I am going to classify this as a hoax site. It could be useful for teaching Web evaluation and critical thinking skills to elementary school students.

Principal, student punished for plagiarism

Ah, the memories the Naperville Central High class of 2008 will have. The school in Illinois has had the Principal fired and the class Valedictorian punished. Why? Because they both got caught plagiarizing.

The Naperville Sun reported, "Naperville Central High School Principal Jim Caudill isn’t the only one Naperville School District 203 is punishing for plagiarism. During a Thursday afternoon press conference in which District 203 officials announced that Caudill would likely be 'reassigned' due to his admitted transgression, Superintendent Alan Leis revealed that portions of the commencement address delivered by Central’s valedictorian also appear to be plagiarized. Leis would not identify the valedictorian by name, but, in covering Central’s May 21 graduation ceremony, Central administrators reported that Steven “Hankong” Su was the valedictorian for Central’s class of 2008."

I am not sure of what either case of plagiarism is but the video of the commencement is being edited to remove some segments. That probably is a clue as to what happened. I am afraid plagiarism in commencements is fairly common. How many ways can you say basically the same thing? This probably just does not get caught very often.

Elementary Counselors Get Schooled in Information Literacy

The Ledger of Lakeland, Florida has a report up about elementary education and information literacy. It is titled Elementary Counselors Get Schooled in Information Literacy and was written by Thomas Hagerty.

From the site:

Elementary professional school counselors from the Polk County School District held their spring meeting April 10 at the University of South Florida Lakeland. The featured speaker was Dr. Wendy-lou Greenidge, assistant professor of counselor education, USF Lakeland. She spoke on "Using Online Resources and Technology to Improve Elementary School Counseling Programs."

In her presentation, Greenidge stressed the importance of information literacy - the ability to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.

"In this Information Age, to provide the best service to their clients and to promote their own professional development, counselors need to develop information literacy," said Greenidge. "The Internet houses an abundance of counseling information and resources. However, to effectively and efficiently access this information requires knowledge of search engines, Web sites, and databases."

Review: God's Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School

God's Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School, reviewed by Michael Lorenzen. (This review is from 2002. It used to reside on a now defunct website. I am republishing it here as I believe it may be of interest to some on the Web.)

Alan Peshkin wrote God's Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School in the 80s. Nonetheless, the forces that shaped the forming and operation of the anonymous "Bethany Baptist Academy" are still very much an issue today. While new possibilities such as charter schools give parents more control over the education of their children, only private endeavors can possibly offer a parent from a Christian Fundamentalist background the type of schooling that Peshkin described today. And the appeal for some goes beyond the escape from the secular world. The school that Peshkin described has all the elements of a successful school: institutional unity of purpose, a dedicated faculty, strong discipline, rigorous homework, and committed parents. As Bethany Baptist Academy is probably not alone in its success, it is useful to ponder the implications of the success of the fundamentalist private school.

Bethany Baptist Academy has no confusion as to the mission that drives it. The goal is to prepare students to be successful in a world that they intend to be apart from. "Separate from the world-in it but not of it" is the driving principle. Students should come to be "saved", lead wholesome lives, witness their faith to non-believers, and at the same time maintain their distance from the secular world. And, the student has to be taught to do this while they also learn to interact and live in a secular world that will daily challenge their lifestyles. Both the faculty and parents of Bethany strongly believe in this purpose and the message in constantly reinforced in all aspects of the curriculum and at home.

This type of schooling is bound to bother some educators. Students are not taught to value viewpoints that differ from the biblical interpretations of their teachers. Critical thinking skills are only sharpened to question in biblically and politically correct tones. Cultural diversity is not valued when most religious perspectives (and all but one sexual one) are taught to be incorrect. Further, state regulations for schools are ignored. This is problematic to those who believe in teacher certification and state assessment of scholastic achievement of students. The success and proliferation of schools such as Bethany is a direct challenge to many educators.

Although there are some limits, most laws ultimately uphold the right of the parent to decide what is best for their own children. This exercise in parental involvement has lead many to home school children, send their kids to private schools, and more recently lead to the development of charter schools. It is no surprise that Fundamentalist Christians are exercising their parental rights to educate their children in ways that fit their cultural views. The public schools are not supportive of the fundamentalist way of life. In many ways, public education is open and willing to embrace every form of diversity in the world with the exception of western religion. Further, it teaches many things such as situational ethics and evolution, which the fundamentalists view as being diametrically opposed to their beliefs. Attempts to get public schools to address their concerns are usually unsuccessful and often result in the petitioning party being portrayed as a right wing zealot or nut by the teachers and local media. It is no wonder that fundamentalists consider the curriculum of schools to be a religion in and of itself called "secular humanism" and their withdraw from public education seems to be a rational response to this hostile religion.

Much to the surprise of many educators, the fundamentalist approach to schooling in Peshkin's book works. In addition to "schooling" the child in religious issues, Bethany is successful in teaching academic subject matter. Bethany students were supposedly doing well on assessment tests. Doubtlessly, the students were able to read and had a good grasp on many scholarly subjects. From reading Peshkin's book, every indication was given that the school was doing a good job educating in academic subject matter. If this is the case, why shouldn't parents consider this type of schooling if it appeals to them and they can afford it? If the fundamentalist school can give a superior spiritual education and at least a good academic education, it is very logical that fundamentalist parents will choose these schools when they can.

Some concern for this type of schooling is in order even from a fundamentalist perspective. If students are not exposed to competing ideas, they will not get the kind of education needed to deal with many issues. If the student never goes to movies, has limited TV exposure, and has a heavily censored curriculum at school, how will the student deal with people who have been exposed to other ideologies and believe them? Without a wider exposure, the student will be at a disadvantage when engaging in debate with non-believers. This could cause some to ultimately question their faith in the face of a charismatic "debate" opponent or hamper their ability to make conversions. From a secular view, this type of "sheltered" education is even more problematic. Someday these children will grow up, vote, and take part in the decisions that they are not truly fully educated about. All issues will be one-dimensional to these students and compromise will be difficult for them to engage in causing even more problem in this diverse society.

The library at Bethany Baptist Academy is a good example of this. The "librarian" engaged heavily in censorship. (Although it is worth noting this individual may have lacked the credentials to be called a librarian.) When she discovered a chart showing the evolution of man, she glued the pages together so those students could not see it. What was she thinking? Every one of her students will at some point be exposed to similar charts or illustrations of evolution. How can the student effectively argue against evolution if they do not understand the concept they are arguing against?

Public schools need to seriously consider the success of schools such as Bethany. Parents can and will pull their children out of traditional public schools and put them in charters, private schools, or educate them at home. The public schools must look attractive to families from strong religious backgrounds. This in many cases will prove impossible when dealing with the most extreme members of these groups. However, more moderate or lukewarm families may stay in the public schools if their religion is acknowledged in a positive manner. If controversial subjects such as birth control and situational ethics are eliminated or covered in a less objectionable way, the public schools may not lose as many students. Finally, the public schools must realize that groups such as Christian Fundamentalists themselves add to diversity. A diverse curriculum includes them as well.

Peshkin has written one of the best education books this writer has ever read. It was a pleasure to read about Bethany Baptist Academy even if I was bothered by some of what I learned. Regardless of what one may believe, this type of schooling works. Peshkin was very successful in translating his experiences into writing. Rather than fear this kind of school, educators can learn much by studying them. I have no doubt that traditional public education will continue to shrink in the face of charters, home schooling, and tuition tax credits. More schools like Bethany will appear. Educators need to take them seriously from a scholarly and non-hostile viewpoint.

Partnering With Librarians to Meet NCATE Standards in Teacher Education

There is a long technical article at Red Orbit on information literacy titled Partnering With Librarians to Meet NCATE Standards in Teacher Education. It is by Tobeylynn Birch, Louise Greenfield, Karen Janke, Deborah Schaeffer, and Ada Woods. If you are a fan of the ACRL Information Literacy Standards, this article is for you.

From the site:

As colleges of education prepare to meet NCATE standards they will find technically savvy allies and willing collaborators at their campus libraries. The ACRL standards that guide librarians in the delivery of information literacy instruction parallel four of the six NCATE standards. In meeting the standards of their own professional association, academic librarians have prepared themselves to be knowledgeable partners in me achievement of NCATE information literacy and technology standards. As the numerous studies and projects discussed here indicate, librarians and school of education faculty are already collaborating in a variety of ways to meet the challenge of producing information literate teachers. The variety of responses also illustrate there is no panacea or single approach, and that there are many options and opportunities available for education professionals to meet NCATE standards.

Charter Schools: Are They Needed? Looking at Both Sides of the Debate

Charter Schools: Are They Needed? Looking at Both Sides of the Debate

by Michael Lorenzen

(This is another rescued paper I put up at a now vanished website years ago. I think some web surfers may find it of interest.)

Most reform concepts work by making changes within schools. However, a newer reform idea works by creating entirely new schools. The charter school movement seeks to improve public school by creating new, rival, and competing public schools. The hope is that competition for students will force public schools to improve. However, many do not believe the free market will actually bring this about and may actually harm public schools. Despite the relative newness of the charter concept, the ideas behind it are not new and an examination of education literature can shed a lot of light on the concept.

Description of charter schools

The pro-charter school group, the Michigan Association of Public School Academies (MAPSA), defines on their web page that, "Charter Schools are public schools-free and open to all. They are started by interested parents, educators, and business and community leaders. Each school is created with its own unique curricula and is licensed by a school district, community college or, most often, a state university."

The mostly anti-charter National Education Association, (NEA) furthers the definition by writing on their web site, "These school are deregulated, autonomous and independent of the rules and regulations that govern traditional schools. The theory that underlies the charters is that such freeing of some public schools will hasten educational innovation, improve student achievement, create greater parental involvement, and promote improvement of public education in general. And the theory follows that if there's no educational improvement, the school will be held accountable and the school's charter won't be renewed."

A description of the charter school concept can be constructed including both of the above descriptions and using other sources. Charter schools are public schools that are free from some, but not all, of the regulations that govern most public schools. Any person or group may start their own public school if they can get a charter from an approving educational institution, which is normally a state university. These schools, which are free from many regulations and teachers unions, can attempt to innovate curriculum and learning in ways that traditional public schools can not or will not try.

In districts with charter schools, parents can choose to send their children to either the local public school system or to a charter school. Whichever school the parents chooses, that school gets all of the state funding for that student. It is hoped that making schools compete for students will make them better. If a school system loses a significant number of students and money to charter schools then it is likely going to try to compete with the charter schools by being more responsive to parents and more willing to try reforms that the school previously opposed. Those local school districts that refuse to innovate and improve to keep pace with charter schools will lose money and students. Those charter schools that do not deliver quality instruction will not keep their students and run the risk of going out of business or losing their charter.

Praise and criticism for charter schools

The greatest benefit of charter schools according to its proponents is that all public schools will get better if there is competition. The free market will drive quality instruction and innovation and those schools, which do not respond to market forces, will either get progressively weaker or be closed entirely. The pro-charter Charter Friends National Network writes on its web site, "The purpose of charter schools is not just to create schools. The evaluation (of charter schools) should ask whether districts do in fact act to improve their own programs in response to the appearance of charter laws and charters schools. Most evaluations so far have not looked for these second-order effects. To evaluate the 'ripple effect' requires looking simply at what districts do." Using this argument, if a school district improves after a charter is opened, the charter school idea has worked even if the local school district outperforms the charter school. Both the school district and the charter are needed to create the free market that drove the improvement in the school district.

The United States is a capitalistic society and the free market drives most of what occurs in the economy. The Federal government promotes the free market as it tends to produce jobs and keep prices low. Although different sectors of the market may not always work as well as they should in the free market; the American free market system has created the strongest economy in the world. The only area that the government has historically interfered with the free market is to prevent or destroy monopolies.

The free market can create monopolies but monopolies destroy the free market when they emerge. This reasoning is transferred to public schools with the charter school idea. The public school system as it previously stood was a monopoly. Except for paying for private schooling, the local public school was the only option a parent had for educating their child. Charter schools create competition. And if the free market works for education as it does in the economy, the public schools as a whole will become a better product.

Opponents of charter schools have several counters to this reasoning. Much of it can be found at the NEA web site. Although the free market does a good job as a whole for the economy, there are losers in this system. As such, there will be losers in an educational free market. Do we want children to suffer if they are among the losers? Further, how can you make a school better if you take money away from it? Opponents argue that many of the problems with public schools to begin with are from a lack of funding. Taking money from a school will only make it worse.

Another argument for charter schools is fairness. A form of school choice exists for those have the money. It does not for everyone else. Wrote Nathan (74), "We have a deeply inequitable public school system in which the wealthy already have school choice: middle and upper income families can always move to exclusive suburbs, where the price of admission to 'public' schools is the ability to buy a home and pay real estate taxes. Low and moderate income families do not have this ability. Thus those who defend the current public education system are in fact defending a massive, informal school choice system based on wealth and residence which is arguably the most inequitable system imaginable. As one innercity activist recently said to a charter school critic: 'How dare you insist we send our children to school you will do anything to avoid for your children?' Charter schools offer a much fairer approach to school choice."

Since the traditional public school model relied so heavily on where a student lived, this tended to give the poor the worst public schools. However, an inordinate number of racial minority students live in poor neighborhoods. The traditional public school model then places a higher percentage of minorities in poor schools. This results in a racist system that perpetuates racial privilege. It is not surprising then that many members of these racial groups are supporters of charter schools. They provide parents with a choice of schools. This choice can create better schools for their children, which may help to break the poverty cycle. It is interesting to note that civil rights leader Rosa Parks applied to start a charter school in Detroit based on this reasoning.

Another argument for charter schools is that they empower parents. Charter schools not only give parents the option of creating or attending schools more to their liking, but it also gives them the opportunity to bargain with teachers and administrators in school districts. One area that can be explored is cultural preference. Racial minorities may desire a school that promotes their culture. Religious parents may desire to send their children to schools that promote their moral values. Wrote Smith (56), "Many families with children in the public schools must contend with pressures of assimilation toward mainstream norms as they attempt to transmit their cultural or religious values. To escape these pressures, or to be ensured a certain quality of education, some families choose private education. But only those who can afford private school tuition can use this option. Thus, families whose values are not represented in the mainstream culture and families with low to middle incomes are at a disadvantage in the present structure of public education."

Charter schools give choice to those who previously lacked it. It also assures a higher level of bargaining for a parent if they keep a child in the local school district. The Board of Education will think twice about approving teacher supported curriculum that is opposed by a vocal group of parents. Unpopular curriculum such as sex education and values clarification is less likely to be approved in a district if parents can and will pull their children from the school district. Critics of charter schools point to this as a bad thing. They prefer to allow these curricular decisions to be made by educational professionals. However, most parents believe that the ultimate arbiter of their children's education is themselves and not the state. And as such, this ability to have cultural preferences addressed seriously is popular with parents.

Another criticism of charter schools is that for-profit companies operate many of them. The NEA web site calls them "fly-by-night" companies in derision. A recent article in Educational Leadership wrote about these for-profit schools in Michigan. Wrote Dykgraaf and Lewis (51), "Our conclusions proved troubling. First, cutting expenses is indeed part of the for-profit strategy, which results in consequences for transportation, special education, and the socioeconomic mix of students. Second, we concluded the public is not aware of how drastic for-profit management is in Michigan, for no easily accessible source of information is available on the activity of these management groups. Finally, de facto ownership of these schools rests more with the management companies and not the public."

The NEA's, Dykgraaf, and Lewis's criticism of for-profit charter schools is very understandable. It touches on a fundamentally moral issue. Is it ok to run schools for money? Many would find this objectionable. Cost cutting in areas such as special education is also problematic. Finally, the fact that for-profit schools are truly owned by the corporation and not the state raises many concerns.

Another criticism of charter schools is that they attract students with concerned parents. By their nature, parents have to take an active interest in their children's education to enroll in charter schools. Children who have parents actively involved in their education do better overall than students who do not. Hence, charter schools are going to attract the students who tend to do better in school. The local school system will be left with fewer children who have active parents. This will make it hard to compare the charter with the local school district. If the charter is getting better performing students, it should be doing better on comparable tests. A counter to this argument is that the parents who are concerned about education have a right to send their children to schools that are populated with students of other concerned parents. This is a better learning environment for the students.

Another result of charter schools that this author has not seen considered yet is the concept of property values. Real estate values in areas with poor school systems tend to be low. This is often attributed to the quality of the local public school system. What happens when charter schools are present in a district? If parents can avoid the local public school system by sending a child to a charter school, does this make them more willing to live in the district? If this is the case, property values should rise in these districts. If this proves true, residents of a district will show even more support to charter schools. Although a few more years will need to pass before this kind of research can be done, it does like an interesting research idea.

Analysis of the charter school issue

Not surprisingly, the debate over charter has been informed by the development of education and educational reform in America. As such, looking at the writings of educational researchers and practitioners can help in understanding the charter school issue. Charter schools have not developed in a vacuum. Looking at the wider issues in education is very important.

The belief that charter schools help further the goals of democracy and fairness is important. The notion of democratic equality is very important in the United States. The belief that schooling should serve all regardless of social background and give all an equal chance at an education that will lead to a potentially high social class is widespread. In brief, this belief envisions that all inhabitants of the United States (citizen and alien alike) will receive the same education. Those who are worthy, regardless of the backgrounds of the parents, will succeed and achieve great things and those that are less worthy will through their own efforts select their own less than spectacular destinies. This is a powerful idea that is held by those dedicated to the egalitarian ideal of The Declaration of Independence that all men are created equal, by those who are in the working class who believe that providence has delivered what they deserve, and by those who are well off who believe the educational system has justified their own status.

Several scholars have taken note of democratic equality. Cohen and Neufield (73) wrote, In addition to citizenship training and equal treatment, the goal of democratic equality has taken a third form, and that is the pursuit of equal access." Labaree (47) wrote, "Equal access has come to mean that every American should have an equal opportunity to acquire an education at any educational level." These same scholars convincingly trace the development of this vision of equality in America from the development of public elementary schools, the rise of public high schools, and finally the realization of nearly universal access to higher education.

However, the traditional public school system has not delivered on the democratic equality promise. Not all schools are equal. Some are much worse than others are. Poor students in these schools have no choice but to attend them. This results in them not having a fair chance at succeeding. Charter schools give many the belief that democratic equality is still attainable.

Paradoxically, this low public opinion of the local public school system developed because schools tried to deliver on this promise. However, universal school attendance created problems. Can a school be open to all and be excellent? The answer appears to be no too many. By attempting to serve everyone equally, the school serves no on excellently. Access for all creates a problem. Vast numbers of diverse students with various backgrounds have different educational needs. Further, many students do not desire to be in school. This creates a need to make school attractive to these students. This can result in a water downed curriculum that most students can succeed in. Further, as Willis showed in his book on working class students in England, even the students can deliberately choose not to be educated.

Part of the desire for charter schools is the perceived lack of serious education in public schools. Wrote Sedlak at al (preface, x), "There appears to have developed an implicit 'bargain' between students in virtually all of our high schools, which results in a de-emphasis on academic learning and student disengagement from learning. The bargain is negotiated, albeit tacitly, between two parties, both of which have resources, but unequal power. This bargain determines the level of academic learning that takes place in the classroom. Although content and acquisition of knowledge ultimately suffer, the bargain struck in most classrooms furthers its primary goal of making the relationships between educators and students more comfortable and less troublesome."

This idea creates a dual consideration for charter schools and the community. Charter schools can indeed create an alternative to public schools where bargains water down learning. Many want this bargain eliminated. The public does not want students taking easy classes and they want students being challenged academically. They want the students to be challenged and the teachers to push high standards. The hope is that charter schools will do this. However, what promise do we have that the charter schools will not make their own bargains with students? What assurance is there that the current bargaining system will simply not be reproduced in the charter schools? This should make charter school advocates take pause and consider what can occur in the charter schools.

The desire of many to want charter schools is not surprising. People have a strong ownership and desire to participate in the education process. Wrote Cusick (1992), "Individual freedom runs all the way through the system. Parents may or may not support the school board; superintendents may support or oppose the state department; state department staff may alter the intent of federal policy makers. People make and exercise personal decisions, enter and take part on their own terms, and regards those as their rights. Students mix their classes, cultures, and friendships with school requirements; teachers adjust their curriculums to their predilections, create their student relations, and support and oppose principals as they choose. Reformers decide schools need accountability, or principals decide their teachers have too much or too little power. Teachers decide students need more freedom. Each member of the system is free to make his or her own decision and set out on a course of action."

The charter school movement is the ultimate manifestation of Cusick's view of the education process. Charter schools allow unparalleled opportunities for input. Any teacher, administrator, parent, businessperson, or politician can literally start their own public school. The degree to which this can be used to influence the education process is enormous. The amount of educational freedom created is unprecedented. Charter schools are popular now and it is certain they will continue to expand in the near future. It will be interesting to see how well they perform in comparison to public school districts and if these districts change for the better in attempting to compete for students. Regardless, the conditions that created charter schools will remain and this reform is just one way to address them.

Works Cited

Charter Friends National Network. http://web.archive.org/web/20070405174929/http://www.charterfriends.org/.

Cohen, David K. and Barbara Neufield (1981). "The failure of High Schools and the Progress of Education." Daedalus 110 (Summer): 69-89.

Cusick, Philip (1992). The Educational System: Its Nature and Logic. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1990.

Dykgraaf, Christy Lancaster and Shirley Kane Lewis (1998). "For-Profit Charter Schools: What the Public Needs to Know." Educational Leadership 56(2): 51-53.

Labaree, David (1997). "Public Goods, Private Goods: The American Struggle Over Educational Goals." American Educational Research Journal 34 (Spring): 39-81.

Michigan Association of Public School Academies. http://web.archive.org/web/20070405174929/http://www.charterschools.org/.

Nathan, Joe (1998). "Charters and Choice." American Prospect (issue 41): 74-77.

National Education Association. http://www.nea.org/issues/charter/ .

Sedlak, Michael et al. (1986). Selling Students Short: Classroom Reform in the American High School. New York: Teachers College Press.

Smith, Stacy (1998). "The Democratizing Potential of Charter Schools." Educational Leadership 56(2) : 55-58.

Willis, Paul. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. New York: Columbia University Press.

Educational Policy: What is it?

Educational Policy: What is it?

by Michael Lorenzen

(This is another rescued paper I put up at a now vanished website years ago. I think some web surfers may find it of interest.)

This paper examines the concept of policy and how it applies to education. This includes a look at the definition of the word policy and how different definitions of the word can be applied. It will also look at educational policy and discuss the different ways that educational policy can be created and applied to serve schools.

Educational Policy

The idea of policy is an important one. It can be applied in almost any setting and usually is. Policy is important in politics, business, and non-profit organizations. Almost every Website has a privacy policy listed somewhere at the site. Policy is also important for education. It is the method by which the government, the public, and educators interact to formulate plans and rules for running schools.

What is Policy?

There are a variety of ways to define policy. Fowler (2004) notes seven different definitions of the word ranging from narrow definitions to broader ones. Fowler defined it, "Public policy is the dynamic and value laden process through which a political system handles a public problem. It includes a government's expressed intentions as well as its consistent patterns of activity and inactivity" (p. 9).

The word policy itself is old. The Oxford English Dictionary (1989) noted that the first recorded use of the word was in 1386. There are a total of eight different definitions for the word. The one that is most apt for educational policy is, "A course of action adopted and pursued by a government, party, ruler, statesman, etc.; any course of action adopted or as advantageous or expedient" (p. 27).

The Encyclopedia of Education (2003) has a lengthy entry on educational policy. In this entry, policy is noted as, "The decisions and rules enacted by the three branches of government at all levels - national, state, and local. The policy pipeline is capable of reciprocal transmission. Whereas society's preferences shape and continually reshape education, the outcomes of education continually influence the values and preferences of the broader society" (p. 669, 670).

There are some similarities and differences in these three definitions. Fowler (2004) appears to reserve policy for the government but also defines the school system as part of the government. However, the use of the phrase public problem indicates that some feedback from non-government actors can influence the development of policy. The Oxford English Dictionary (1989) definition also limits policy to government bodies. Also, The Encyclopedia of Education (2003) definition puts the origination of policy in the hands of government at various levels.

Despite this obvious bias towards policy as a government driven process, all three definitions allow for a broader interpretation that can lead to policy being formulated outside governmental bodies. As previously noted, Fowler (2004) includes the administrators and educators who run a school as being part of the government. The Oxford English Dictionary (1989) noted that any course of action adopted for the greater good was policy making which would mean that local school employees could develop policy on their own in some cases.

Synthesizing these three definitions gives a picture that policy is something that is driven by government bodies such as Congress, a state legislature, or school board. However, the definitions of policy are loose enough that it allows for both the public at large and for school employees as well to engage in policy making for educational institutions. The government may be the most important policy maker but others can have a large influence on the process.

How Educational Policy Serves a School

As the definitions offered above demonstrate, educational policy is not just an abstract idea. It is a real concept that directly impacts schools. It is true that some educational policy can harm schools. Many argue that the No Child Left Behind Act is such an instance. However, as a whole, educational policy serves to benefit schools.

One area of benefit is public support. Schools need public money. It is funding from the federal, state, and local levels that provide the money that operates public schools. Ultimately, it is the public who elect the government leaders who decide the funding levels that schools have to deal with on an annual basis.

The public has concerns about education. Some of these concerns are agreed upon by most (like literacy and graduation rates) or may spark wide disagreement in areas such as sex education or intelligent design studies. However, the people who pay the taxes want their concerns addressed by schools and this is reflected in the educational policy that differing levels of government enact. If there is a belief that schools are ignoring the wishes of the public, the resulting backlash against educators may result in failed levies and unwanted legislation.

The public preoccupation with education is not surprising. Wrote Cusick (1992), "Individual freedom runs all the way through the system. Parents may or may not support the school board; superintendents may support or oppose the state department; state department staff may alter the intent of federal policy makers. People make and exercise personal decisions, enter and take part on their own terms, and regards these as their rights" (p. ix). Everyone feels entitled to have a say about public education and it is educational policy which then allows most to feel that their concerns are being addressed if educational policy reflects their views.

Many educators seem unaware of this. Some often complain about how the government or members of the local community interfere with the operation and curriculum of schools. They see many of the policies dictated to them as an affront to their status as professionals. This may, in some cases, be true. However, most educators are not in private practice but are instead public employees funded by tax dollars. As such, they are accountable to the public and this means that they must address and often follow the dictates of educational policy formulated by the different aspects of government. Educational policy directly serves schools by helping them to retain public support which provides them with the funding they need to operate.

Another way that schools benefit from educational policy is in the area of equal access to education. The Encyclopedia of Education (2003) noted, "In the latter half of the twentieth century, courts began to apply the U.S. Constitution's equal protection clause to a spectrum of social condition, such as voting rights, housing, employment, and education" (p. 671). This judicial activism would lead to greater racial desegregation, more gender equity, and better educational opportunities for students with special education needs.

Educational policies that help lead to equal access to education serves a school by helping to assure all students are getting a quality education. State and local governments may oppose some social changes such as racial desegregation. This opposition may even be (and probably is) connected to local opinion and beliefs. The imposition of educational policy that forces schools to deliver equal access to education is in the best interest of the schools and students even if there is resistance. Ultimately, these educational policies make for better schools that more efficiently serve the community.

Schools also benefit from the ability to formulate educational policy at the local level. Although many school boards make decisions based on policy directives from higher up in the government, many decisions are made for local reasons. The ability to create educational policy to deal with local needs serves schools as they are then able to deal with issues that may be unique to their communities.

The formulation of local educational policy also allows schools to create and then enforce policies that keep the school consistent on how it handles issues. For example, the creation and implementation of a policy on how students rights are treated during a suspension sequence can assure that all students are treated the same way when this form of punishment is attempted. Policies negotiated during the collective bargaining process can help to see that all teaching staff are treated equitably in regards to working conditions and the right to appeal disciplinary decisions.

The creation of a guide holding all of the policies of a school also allows administrators, teachers, students, and community members to know the rules for how a school is operated. This cuts down on some potential confusion. It also allows the different parties to know when something is or is not allowed and when there are omissions in the policies of the school that should be addressed. For example, this can serve a school when a principal creates new rules (policy) for a school that are in not in conflict with any of the current policies that a school district is operating under.

Educational policy can also serve a school by allowing for an analysis of school policies. Bowers (1988) wrote an ERIC Digest on this which showed how, school boards can use policy analysis as a tool for policy formation and implementation (p. 1). If a school lacks some policies, it will not be able to analyze these missing policies to discover problems and make improvements.

Finally, educational policy can serve to empower school employees. The daily operation of schools means that administrators and teachers must create new rules (policy) on a regular basis. Many of these new policies never need to be reviewed by a higher authority as long as they are consistent with currently existing educational policies of the school. For example, a high school principal can decide that parking is problematic at the school and create a new policy for parking. Although educational policy can sometimes hinder the ability of educators to successfully complete their duties, it can also be a tool to help them solve problems on their own.

References

Bowers, B. C. (1988). Policy analysis for school districts. Eugene, Oregon : ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED302899).

Cusick, P. (1992). The educational system: Its nature and logic. New York : McGraw Hill.

Fowler, F. C. (2004). Policy studies for educational leaders: An introduction (2nd. ed.). Upper Saddle River , New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Guthrie, J. W. (2003). The encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 2). New York: Macmillan Reference USA .

Simpson, J. A., & Weiner, E. S. C. (1989). The Oxford English dictionary (2nd ed., Vol. XII). Oxford , England: Clarendon Press.

Why the Information Literacy Land of Confusion?

I am often asked why I named this blog the Information Literacy Land of Confusion. There is a reason behind it. Here is the story.

In 2000, I conducted a study with high school student in the Lansing, Michigan area. It was a qualitative study which interviewed students asking them how they used the Web to find information for research. The result of my findings were published as:

"The Land of Confusion? High School Students and Their Use of the Web for Research." Research Strategies 18, no. 2 (2001): 151-163.

I was a bit taken aback by what I believed I found. Here is the abstract from the article:

"Examines high school students' use of the World Wide Web to complete assignments. Findings showed the students used a good variety of resources, including libraries and the World Wide Web, to find information for assignments. However, students were weak at determining the quality of the information found on web sites. Students did poorly at evaluating web site information in the absence of gatekeepers."

Most of the students were using search engines as gatekeepers. Google is a good gatekeeper for keeping spam out of search results. However, it is not a peer-reviewed resource in the sense that it can help students actually find the best scholarly resources. Yet, this is what many students were using it for anyway.

In 2003, I finally decided to indulge my curiosity about blogs and start one myself. Information literacy seemed like a good topic to write about although I have always been willing to write about other issues and my life in general at times.

Obviously, the name of this blog is related to the title of the 2001 article in Research Strategies. I gave the name to the article based on a song from the 80s band Genesis. In that song, Phil Collins sang, "Can't you see this a land of confusion?"

The lyrics seemed to me to apply to how many students were using the Web to find information when doing research. In the absence of the expertise of scholars, the Web had become and yet is a literal land of confusion. Surfer beware. I like the Web and can not imagine living without it. It can provide good information. But is not quite where it needs to be yet.

That is the story. Based on my logs, I know many of my hits are from people looking for free downloads of the Genesis song or the recent Disturbed remake of it. I am sorry to disappoint them. However, I am sticking with the name for this blog. And even if I do not update as frequently as I used to, I plan on sticking around.

School Reform in Massachusetts: Comparing Educational Initiatives in 1893 and 1997

School Reform in Massachusetts: Comparing Educational Initiatives in 1893 and 1997

Michael Lorenzen

(I wrote this paper back in 1999. It had previously resided on a now defunct website. It is a bit dated but I feel it may be of interest to some readers.)

The concept of reforming and changing schooling is not a new idea. This desire to make schools better has a long tradition. There are many examples of this throughout American history. However, one good example is the case of schools in Massachusetts. Two documents demonstrate the different ways educational reform has been approached. This essay will examine the written record of a speech made by Charles Eliot in 1893 where he laid out six key changes he felt were necessary for grammar schools in Massachusetts. This essay will also look at report published in 1997 by the Massachusetts Department of Education examining five years of state mandated educational reform initiatives in schooling. Surprisingly, many of the themes addressed by Eliot in 1893 are still being thought about in 1997 although there are also many differences in the documents.

Description of the 1893 Speech

Charles Eliot, the President of Harvard University, gave a speech at the Massachusetts State Teachers' Association Conference in December of 1893. The speech was titled, "The Grammar School of the Future." A written version of this speech was included in a collection of Eliot's work, Educational Reform: Essays and Addresses , which was published in 1898. As such, the written version of the speech has been edited and probably reads slightly different that what was presented at the conference. However, as the written version was published only a few years later and was prepared by the same author it is reasonable to assume the intellectual content remained unchanged.

As President of Harvard University, Eliot was in a position that was respected and his words would have been given serious consideration by the conference attendees. Further, Eliot had developed a reputation as an educational reformer. Although the speech was delivered to Massachusetts educators, it is reasonable to assume that Eliot intended for his ideas to be disseminated nationally and be given consideration beyond Massachusetts. This is evidenced by the inclusion of the speech in Educational Reform: Essay and Addresses. This speech then was delivered with the purpose of influencing the reform of schools nationwide.

There are six main reforms considered in Eliot's speech. To begin with, Eliot wanted every grammar school to have a playground. He thought this was important for both the health of the students and to create a better learning environment. Secondly, he believed that schools should purchase curriculum materials such as books and maps. He did not believe that a bare classroom where only the teacher had the textbook was conductive towards a learning environment. Not surprisingly, Eliot also thought that additional funding was necessary as a reform in and of itself. Further, he was appalled at the large class sizes of the day, which had one teacher with fifty or sixty students. Eliot wanted to move towards a teacher/student ratio near 25 to 1.

Finally, Eliot wanted teaching at the grammar school done closer to the university model. He saw several experienced teachers organizing and directing learning while assistant teachers saw to the day to day operation of the classroom. Students would meet infrequently with experienced teachers who would direct the overall curriculum. The assistant teachers then conducted the daily lessons. This method of teaching would allow for the experience of the lead teachers to be spread out among a larger number of students while still allowing for the students to have access to an assistant teacher on a daily basis.

It is evident that Eliot had assumptions of what was best for students. His ideas lend themselves towards an active learning, hands-on classroom environment. Eliot wanted the students to have access to books, maps, and other curricular materials so that they could directly participate in the learning themselves. He wanted students to have the opportunity to have a playground so that the students would be able to be physically active which was both healthy but also allowed the students to get rid of excess energy allowing them to concentrate on their schoolwork. An emphasis on small class sizes as well seems to indicate that Eliot wanted the students to actively participate in the learning rather than sit and listen to a lecture. This leads one to believe that Eliot believed that learning was an active process and that the role of the student was to participate directly in his or her own schooling.

The above assumptions clearly impact Eliot's vision of the role of the teacher and the organization of the educational experiences in the school. Again, Eliot's belief in small class sizes allows the teacher to give more attention to each individual student, which leads away from the lecture towards more one-on-one and small group learning. The acquisition of curricular tools that allow students to learn on their own also gives the teacher more opportunities to direct individuals in learning outside of lecturing. Eliot's desire to use a university approach to teacher organization in his view would allow for experienced teachers to share their expertise with both students and assistant teachers, which would create a more learner friendly classroom as well as empower the teacher to set curriculum. It is apparent that Eliot assumed that the organization of the educational experience and the role of the teacher were to allow for the student to actively become engaged in education. Further, and most importantly from the point of comparison with the next artifact, this university model clearly placed a great deal of responsibility for the curriculum with the teacher. Eliot had strong views on what he felt schools should teach but ultimately in this model the decision on curriculum and assessment was left to the teacher.

Description of the 1997 Report

In 1993, the Massachusetts legislature passed The Massachusetts Education Reform Act of 1993. This law called for changes in school funding, statewide student testing, and statewide standards for schools and teachers. To bring this about, Massachusetts allocated over two billion dollars to bring about reform mandates. In 1997, the Massachusetts Department of Education published Education Reform in Massachusetts: A Progress Report, 1993-1997. This was distributed in print form but it was also placed on the Massachusetts Department of Education World Wide Web site. The purpose of the report was to allow for citizens and politicians to see how the reform was being carried out.

The report organizes the description of the reforms around the goals that the original legislation laid out. Over half of the reforms deal directly with state intervention in the curriculum or in graduation requirements. The state has mandated a statewide curriculum encompassing what the state considers core academic subjects. All schools in the state must conform to this statewide curriculum. Further, all elementary schools must spend 900 hours an academic year in the study of "serious" subjects. For secondary schools, this requirement is 990 hours in core academic subjects. The state is requiring testing of all 4th, 8th and 10th graders to ascertain how well each student is doing. These tests are not intended to be punitive but students failing them may be required to take remedial classes to get them up to state standards. A similar test is required of all 3rd graders to test reading skills. Massachusetts is also changing graduation requirements statewide. All students must pass a 10th grade proficiency exam to receive a diploma. Failing to pass this test will result in a denial of graduation.

Massachusetts is also concerned with the quality of its teachers. New teachers will be required to pass a test of subject competency in order to be certified. (After the publication of this report, the first tests were given this year. To much public outcry at the perceived low quality of teacher education in the state, half of the potential new teachers failed.) All teachers after certification are required to participate in "serious" professional development that relates to their subject knowledge or in teaching skills.

Other reforms are being tried as well. Early childhood education is now a priority and it is receiving over one hundred million new dollars in funding. The State Board of Education was reconstituted with fewer members all of whom were appointed by the Governor. The method of school funding is being rethought so that all schools receive the same basic "foundation" funding. Educational technology use is being encouraged and matching grants are being awarded to schools for this purpose. Charter schools have been introduced to give students (and parents) a choice of schools. Sch